# Locally invert a Polynomial

### Challenge

Given a polynomial p with real coefficients of order 1 and degree n, find another polynomial q of degree at most n such that (p∘q)(X) = p(q(X)) ≡ X mod X^(n+1), or in other words such that p(q(X)) = X + h(X) where h is an arbitrary polynomial with ord(h) ≥ n+1. The polynomial q is uniquely determined by p.

For a polynomial p(X) = a(n)*X^n + a(n+1)*X^(n+1) + ... + a(m)*X^m where n <= m and a(n) ≠ 0,a(m) ≠ 0, we say n is the order of p and m is the degree of p.

Simplification: You can assume that p has integer coefficients, and a(1)=1 (so p(X) = X + [some integral polynomial of order 2]). In this case q has integral coefficients too.

The purpose of this simplification is to avoid the issues with floating point numbers. There is however a non-integral example for illustration purposes.

### Examples

• Consider the Taylor series of exp(x)-1 = x + x^2/2 + x^3/6 + x^4/24 + ... and ln(x+1) = x - x^2/2 + x^3/3 - x^4/4 + ... then obviously ln(exp(x)-1+1)= x. If we just consider the Taylor polynomials of degree 4 of those two functions we get with the notation from below (see testcases) p = [-1/4,1/3,-1/2,1,0] and q = [1/24, 1/6, 1/2, 1,0] and (p∘q)(X) ≡ X mod X^5

• Consider the polynomial p(X) = X + X^2 + X^3 + X^4. Then for q(X) = X - X^2 + X^3 - X^4 we get

(p∘q)(X) = p(q(X)) = X - 2X^5 + 3X^6 - 10X^7 +...+ X^16 ≡ X mod X^5


### Testcases

Here the input and output polynomials are written as lists of coefficients (with the coefficient of the highest degree monomial first, the constant term last):

p = [4,3,2,0];  q=[0.3125,-.375,0.5,0]


Integral Testcases:

p = [1,0]; q = [1,0]

p = [9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,0]; q = [4862,-1430,429,-132,42,-14,5,-2,1,0]

p = [-1,3,-3,1,0]; q = [91,15,3,1,0]


# Python 2 + sympy, 128 bytes

We locally invert the polynomial by assuming that q(x) = x, composing it with p, checking the coefficient for x2, and subtracting it from q. Let's say the coefficient was 4, then the new polynomial becomes q(x) = x - 4x2. We then again compose this with p, but look up the coefficient for x3. Etc...

from sympy import*
i=input()
p=Poly(i,var('x'));q=p*0+x
n=2
for _ in i[2:]:q-=compose(p,q).nth(n)*x**n;n+=1
print q.all_coeffs()


# Mathematica, 45 bytes

Normal@InverseSeries[#+O@x^(#~Exponent~x+1)]&


Yeah, Mathematica has a builtin for that....

Unnamed function taking as input a polynomial in the variable x, such as -x^4+3x^3-3x^2+x for the last test case, and returning a polynomial with similar syntax, such as x+3x^2+15x^3+91x^4 for the last test case.

#+O@x^(#~Exponent~x+1) turns the input # into a power series object, truncated at the degree of #; InverseSeries does what it says; and Normal turns the resulting truncated power series back into a polynomial. (We could save those initial 7 bytes if an answer in the form x+3x^2+15x^3+91x^4+O[x]^5 were acceptable. Indeed, if that were an acceptable format for both input and output, then InverseSeries alone would be a 13-byte solution.)

## JavaScript (ES6), 138 bytes

a=>a.reduce((r,_,i)=>[...r,i<2?i:a.map(l=>c=p.map((m,j)=>(r.map((n,k)=>p[k+=j]=m*n+(p[k]||0)),m*l+(c[j]||0)),p=[]),c=[],p=[1])&&-c[i]],[])


Port of @orlp's answer. I/O is in the form of arrays of coefficients in reverse order i.e. the first two coefficients are always 0 and 1.

# Pari/GP, 29 bytes

p->Pol(serreverse(p+O(x^#p)))


Try it online!